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Gabriel Tarde 's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon 's The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories.
- Overview
- Connotations of the term propaganda
- Related terms
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Propaganda is the dissemination of information—facts, arguments, rumours, half-truths, or lies—to influence public opinion. Deliberateness and a relatively heavy emphasis on manipulation distinguish propaganda from casual conversation or the free and easy exchange of ideas.
When was propaganda first used?
People have employed the principles of propaganda—manipulating the dissemination of information and using symbols in an attempt to influence public opinion—for thousands of years, although the term propaganda, used in this sense, didn’t come about until the 17th century.
Where is propaganda used?
Propaganda can be used in several areas, such as commercial advertising, public relations, political campaigns, diplomatic negotiations, legal arguments, and collective bargaining. It can be targeted toward groups of varying size and at the local, national, or global level.
Who was the minister of propaganda for Hitler?
The word propaganda itself, as used in recent centuries, apparently derives from the title and work of the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagation of the Faith), an organization of Roman Catholic cardinals founded in 1622 to carry on missionary work. To many Roman Catholics the word may therefore have, at least in missionary or ecclesiastical terms, a highly respectable connotation. But even to these persons, and certainly to many others, the term is often a pejorative one tending to connote such things as the discredited atrocity stories and deceptively stated war aims of World Wars I and II, the operations of the Nazis’ Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, and the broken campaign promises of a thousand politicians. Also, it is reminiscent of countless instances of false and misleading advertising (especially in countries using Latin languages, in which propagande commerciale or some equivalent is a common term for commercial advertising).
To informed students of the history of communism, the term propaganda has yet another connotation, associated with the term agitation. The two terms were first used by the Russian theorist of Marxism Georgy Plekhanov and later elaborated upon by Vladimir Ilich Lenin in a pamphlet What Is to Be Done? (1902), in which he defined “propaganda” as the reasoned use of historical and scientific arguments to indoctrinate the educated and enlightened (the attentive and informed publics, in the language of today’s social sciences); he defined “agitation” as the use of slogans, parables, and half-truths to exploit the grievances of the uneducated and the unreasonable. Since he regarded both strategies as absolutely essential to political victory, he combined them in the term agitprop. Every unit of historical communist parties had an agitprop section, and to the communist the use of propaganda in Lenin’s sense was commendable and honest. Thus, a standard Soviet manual for teachers of social sciences was entitled Propagandistu politekonomii (For the Propagandist of Political Economy), and a pocket-sized booklet issued weekly to suggest timely slogans and brief arguments to be used in speeches and conversations among the masses was called Bloknot agitatora (The Agitator’s Notebook).
Related to the general sense of propaganda is the concept of “propaganda of the deed.” This denotes taking nonsymbolic action (such as economic or coercive action), not for its direct effects but for its possible propagandistic effects. Examples of propaganda of the deed would include staging an atomic “test” or the public torture of a criminal for its presumable deterrent effect on others, or giving foreign “economic aid” primarily to influence the recipient’s opinions or actions and without much intention of building up the recipient’s economy.
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Distinctions are sometimes made between overt propaganda, in which the propagandists and perhaps their backers are made known to the reactors, and covert propaganda, in which the sources are secret or disguised. Covert propaganda might include such things as political advertisements that are unsigned or signed with false names, clandestine radio stations using false names, and statements by editors, politicians, or others who have been secretly bribed by governments, political backers, or business firms. Sophisticated diplomatic negotiation, legal argument, collective bargaining, commercial advertising, and political campaigns are of course quite likely to include considerable amounts of both overt and covert propaganda, accompanied by propaganda of the deed.
Another term related to propaganda is psychological warfare (sometimes abbreviated to psychwar), which is the prewar or wartime use of propaganda directed primarily at confusing or demoralizing enemy populations or troops, putting them off guard in the face of coming attacks, or inducing them to surrender. The related concept of political warfare encompasses the use of propaganda, among many other techniques, during peacetime to intensify social and political divisions and to sow confusion within the societies of adversary states.
Still another related concept is that of brainwashing. The term usually means intensive political indoctrination. It may involve long political lectures or discussions, long compulsory reading assignments, and so forth, sometimes in conjunction with efforts to reduce the reactor’s resistance by exhausting him either physically through torture, overwork, or denial of sleep or psychologically through solitary confinement, threats, emotionally disturbing confrontations with interrogators or defected comrades, humiliation in front of fellow citizens, and the like. The term brainwashing was widely used in sensational journalism to refer to such activities (and to many other activities) as they were allegedly conducted by Maoists in China and elsewhere.
Learn about the origin, meaning, and methods of propaganda, the deliberate manipulation of public opinion by symbols and messages. Explore the role of propaganda in politics, religion, war, and society with Britannica.
- Bruce Lannes Smith
In the 20th century, the term propaganda emerged along with the rise of mass media, including newspapers and radio. As researchers began studying the effects of media, they used suggestion theory to explain how people could be influenced by emotionally-resonant persuasive messages.
Learn how propaganda is not new and modern, but has a long history of being used by various groups and nations for different purposes. Explore the origins and examples of propaganda from ancient Greece to modern times.
Der Begriff leitet sich vom lateinischen Namen einer päpstlichen Behörde ab, der 1622 von Gregor XV. im Zuge der Gegenreformation ins Leben gerufenen Sacra congregatio de propaganda fide, zu deutsch etwa „Heilige Kongregation für die Verbreitung des Glaubens“, heute offiziell „Dikasterium für die Evangelisierung“. Noch im 17.
Propaganda als Kommunikationstechnik wurde im 17. Jahrhundert hervorgebracht und hat seitdem eine wechselvolle Geschichte durchlaufen. Im Kontext des lange wirkungsmächtigen Paradigmas „starker” Medienwirkungen wurde sie, etwa von den Nationalsozialisten, als ein zentrales Instrument zur Absicherung der eigenen Herrschaft begriffen.
Propaganda is the manipulation of information to influence public opinion, often used by authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Learn about the history, types, and effects of propaganda, and see examples from different contexts and periods.
